Markus 1991 - Culture and the Self - Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation

Google Scholar Link

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological review, 98(2), 224.

Summary

An independent construal of self predominates Western culture. It reflects the beliefs that people are separate and independent, a single person is a whole, and is generally inwardly focused. In contrast, an interdependent construal predominates other cultures. Interdependent construal focus on the “fundamental connectedness of human beings to each other.” An individual is thought of, and fully realized, as a part of a greater social unit. Individuals with a construal focus are generally focused outwards on others.

Many psychological concepts regarding the self are built around the idea of independent construal (e.g., self-fulfillment, self-consciousness, self-control). These concepts may mean something completely different to those with an interdependent construal. The Western idea of self-control is focused on inner attributes, while a more interdependent idea of self-control involves adjusting oneself to those who are part of one’s social unit. The Western conception of self-esteem involves validation of one’s internal attributes. The interdependent conception of self-esteem revolves around one’s ability to adjust and maintain harmony.

Application

The generalizability of certain psychological constructs may not cross cultural boundaries and requires additional cultural validation before application in a different culture. In a similar vein, managing those with interdependent construals will require different strategies than managing those with independent construals because they each have unique motivations. Ego-focused emotions might be appropriate in a Western context, but might be highly offensive in an interdependent context.